CHAPTER I
BASE THEORY
In this chapter will be explained in brief about Nails, Finger and Toes. And the Dodo.
A.
Do you know why you have
fingernails and toenails? They are to protect the ends of your fingers and
toes.
Your fingernails and toenails are made of a tough
material called keratin. Keratin is formed from hard skin. Animals’ claws,
hooves and horns are made of the same thing.
Your nails grow
from the base, where you see a pale shape that looks like part of the moon. The
outer skin at the base of your nails is known as your cuticle. Your nails grow
all the time.
If you make a mud pie or play with sand, dirt gets under
the tips of your fingernails. So you scrub them and clip them to keep them
clean. You clip your toenails straight across so they won’t grow back into the
flesh at the corners of your toes.
Your fingers and hands are very useful parts of your
body. You use your fingers and thumbs to pick things up. Thumbs are specially
important. Try picking up something without using your thumb, and you’ll see
how difficult it is. Fingers and thumbs are good at doing lots of different
jobs. They can tie your shoelaces, button up your shirt, and hold your
chopsticks when you eat.
Your feet and toes are useful, too. They can do some of
things that hands can do. You can feel and touch things with your feet. You can
feel and touch things with your feet. You might be able to pick things up with
your toes, but not nearly as well as with your fingers.
Feet can do some things that hands can’t do. They
support the weight of your body when you walk and run. And your toes help you
to keep your balance as you jump and dance.
B.
The Dodo
The dodo (Raphus
cucullatus) was a flightless bird endemic to the Indian Ocean island of Mauritius.
You may have heard the expression ‘Dead as a Dodo’. We say this when we
mean thet something is complitely dead and gone forever like Dodos.
There really were birds called Dodos. They lived on litle island called
Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, not far from Africa. They were large, chubby
birds, a bit bigger than a turkey. Their tubby wings are too small for flying
and their legs were too short for running. So, they waddled wherever they went.
No people lived on the island. No one ever know about it until the year
1507. Then ships began to top there for water and food. Sailors who went ahore
to hunt had no trouble capturing the clumsyDodos. Dozens and dozens of the big
bird were taken aboard hips and used for food.
People began living on the island in the 1600s. They too ate Dodo bird. So
did the dogs and pig that people brought to the island. The Dodo were easy to
find and chatch. They had no way of hiding or protecting themselves.
By 1681 there were no Dodos left anywere on the island. They had all been killed.
The Dodo wa gone forever.
BAB II
CONTENT
A.
Nails, fingers and toes
The human foot consists of numerous
bones and soft tissues which support the weight of the up right human. Specifically, the toes assist the human while walking, providing balance, weight-bearing,
and thrust during the gait. Toe bones articulate around
the metatarsal bones which make up the central portion of the human foot. The joints
between bones of the toe are known as in terphalangealjoints. Movements are generally instigated by way of tendons actuated by muscles
in the lower leg.
Each of the fingers has unique
cultural and functional significance. From the thumb on the radial side to the ulnar side of the hand, the fingers are in this order: Thumb, Index finger, Middle finger, Ring finger, and Little finger
Nails
Human nails
Fingernails Toenails
A nail is a horn-like envelope covering the
dorsal aspect of the terminal phalanges of fingers and toes in humans, most primates, and a few other mammals.Nails are similar to claws, which are found on numerous other
animals. In common usage, the ord nail often refers to the nail plate
only. Fingernails and toenails are made of a tough protein called keratin, as are animals' hooves and horns.
Along with hair they are an appendage of the skin.
Human anatomy
Basic nail anatomy
The nail consists of the nail plate, the nail matrix
and the nail bed below it, and the grooves surrounding it.
Parts of the nail
The matrix (synonyms: matrix unguis,
keratogenous membrane, nail matrix, onychostroma) is the tissue (or germinal matrix) upon which the nail rests, the part of the nail bed that extends beneath
the nail root and contains nerves, lymph and blood vessels.The matrix is
responsible for the production of the cells that become the nail plate. The
width and thickness of the nail plate is determined by the size, length, and
thickness of the matrix, while the shape of the fingertip itself determines if
the nail plate is flat, arched, or hooked.The matrix will continue to grow as
long as it receives nutrition and remains in a healthy condition.As new nail
plate cells are incubated, they emerge from the matrix round and white to push
older nail plate cells forward; and in this way yet older cells become
compressed, flat, and translucent, making the pink colour of the capillaries in
the nail bed below visible.
The lunula (occasionally called simply "the moon") is the visible part of
the matrix, the whitish crescent-shaped base of the visible nail. The lunula is
largest in the thumb and often absent in the little finger.
The nail bed is the skin beneath the nail
plate. Like all skin, it is composed of two types of tissues: the deeper dermis, the living tissue fixed to the
bone which contains capillaries and glands, and the superficial epidermis, the layer just beneath the nail plate which moves forward with the plate.
The epidermis is attached to the dermis by tiny longitudinal
"grooves" known as the matrix crests or crests of nail
matrix (cristae matricis unguis).[As we age, the
plate grows thinner and these ridges become evident in the plate itself.
The nail sinus (sinus unguis) is the
deep furrow into which the nail root is inserted.
The nail root (radix unguis) is the part
of nail situated in the nail sinus, i.e. the base of the nail embedded
underneath the skin. It originates from the actively growing tissue below, the
matrix.
The nail plate or body of nail (corpus
unguis) is the actual nail, and like hair and skin, made of translucent keratin protein made of amino acids. In the nail it forms a strong
flexible material made of several layers of dead, flattened cells. The plate
appears pink because of the underlying capillaries. Its (transversal) shape is
determined by the form of the underlying bone.
The free margin (margo liber) or distal
edge is the anterior margin of the nail plate corresponding to the abrasive
or cutting edge of the nail. The hyponychium (informally known as the
"quick") is the epithelium located beneath the nail plate at
the junction between the free edge and the skin of the fingertip. It forms a
seal that protects the nail bed. The onychodermal band is the seal
between the nail plate and the hyponychium. It is found just under the free
edge, in that portion of the nail where the nail bed ends and can be recognized
by its glassy, greyish colour (in fair-skinned people). It is not perceptible
in some individuals while it is highly prominent on others.
The eponychium is the small band of epithelium that extends from the posterior
nail wall onto the base of the nail. Often and erroneously called the
"proximal fold" or "cuticle", the eponychium is the end
of the proximal fold that folds back upon itself to shed an epidermal layer of
skin onto the newly formed nail plate. This layer of non-living, almost
invisible skin is the cuticle that "rides out" on the surface of the
nail plate. Together, the eponychium and the cuticle form a protective seal.
The cuticle on the nail plate is dead cells and is often removed during
manicure, but the eponychium is living cells and should not be touched.[6] The perionyx is the
projecting edge of the eponychium covering the proximal strip of the lunula.
The nail wall (vallum unguis) is the
cutaneous fold overlapping the sides and proximal end of the nail. The lateral
margin (margo lateralis) is lying beneath the nail wall on the sides
of the nail and the nail groove or fold (sulcus matricis
unguis) are the cutaneous slits into which the lateral margins are
embedded.
The paronychium is the border tissue around the
nail[10] and paronychia is an infection in this area.
Function
Aesthetics aside, a healthy (finger)nail has the
function of protecting the distal phalanx, the fingertip, and the surrounding
soft tissues from injuries. It also serves to enhance precise delicate
movements of the distal digits through counter-pressure exerted on the pulp of
the finger. The nail then acts as a counterforce when the end of the finger
touches an object, thereby enhancing the sensitivity of the fingertip, even
though there are no nerve endings in the nail itself. Finally, the nail
functions as a tool, enabling for instance a so called "extended precision
grip" (e.g. pulling out a splinter in one's finger).
Growth
Two months of growth of a human
fingernail following an accident.
The growing part of the nail is the part still under
the skin at the nail's proximal end under the epidermis, which is the only living part of a nail.
In mammals, the length and growth rate of nails is
related to the length of the terminal phalanges (outermost finger bones). Thus, in humans, the nail of the index finger
grow faster than that of the little finger; and fingernails grow up to four
times faster than toenails.
In humans, nails grow at an average rate of 3 mm
(0.12 in) a month (as they are a form of hair). Fingernails require 3 to 6
months to regrow completely, and toenails require 12 to 18 months. Actual
growth rate is dependent upon age, gender, season, exercise level, diet, and hereditary factors. Nails grow faster in the
summer than in any other season. Contrary to popular belief, nails do not
continue to grow after death; the skin dehydrates and tightens, making the nails (and
hair) appear to grow.
Medical aspects
Healthcare and
pre-hospital-care providers (EMTs or paramedics) often use the fingernail beds as a
cursory indicator of distal tissue perfusion of individuals that may be dehydrated or in shock. However, this test is not considered reliable in adults. This is known as
the CRT or blanch test.
WEJ Procedure: briefly depress the fingernail bed
gently with a finger. This will briefly turn the nailbed white; the normal pink
colour should be restored within a second or two. Delayed return to pink colour
can be an indicator of certain shock states such as hypovolemia
Nail growth record can show the history of recent
health and physiological imbalances, and has been used as a diagnostic tool since ancient times. Deep transverse grooves known as Beau's lines may form across the nails (not along the nail from cuticle to tip) and are
usually a natural consequence of aging, though they may result from disease.
Discoloration, thinning, thickening, brittleness, splitting, grooves, Mees' lines, small white spots, receded lunula, clubbing (convex), flatness, spooning (concave) can indicate illness in
other areas of the body, nutrient deficiencies, drug reaction or
poisoning, or merely local injury. Nails can also become thickened (onychogryphosis), loosened (onycholysis), infected with fungus (onychomycosis) or degenerate (onychodystrophy); for further information see nail diseases.
Health and care
Bluish or purple fingernail beds may be a symptom of
peripheral cyanosis, which indicates oxygen
deprivation.
Nails can dry out, just like skin. They can also peel, break, and be infected. Toe
infections, for instance, can be caused or exacerbated by dirty socks, specific types of aggressive exercise, tight footwear, and walking unprotected in an
unclean environment.
Nail tools used by different people may transmit
infections. Nail files, "if ... used on different
people, ... may spread nail fungi, staph bacteria or viruses," warns Ted
Dischman, a spokesperson for the California Board of Barbering and
Cosmetology. In fact, over 100 bacterial skin infections in 2000 were traced to footbaths in nail
salons. To avoid this, new improved contactless tools can be used, for example,
gel and cream cuticle removers instead of cuticle scissors.
Nail disease can be very subtle and should be
evaluated by a dermatologist with a focus in this particular
area of medicine. However, most times it is a nail technician who will note a
subtle change in nail disease.
Inherited accessory nail of the fifth toe occurs where the toenail of the
smallest toe is separated, forming a smaller, "sixth toenail" in the
outer corner of the nail. Like any other nail, it can be cut using a nail clipper.
Fashion
Manicures and pedicures are health and cosmetic
procedures to groom, trim, and paint the nails and manage calluses. They require various tools such as
cuticle scissors, nail scissors, nail clippers, and nail files. Artificial nails can also be appended onto real
nails for cosmetic purposes.
A person whose occupation is to cut any type of nail,
apply artificial nails, and care for nails is sometimes called a nail technician. The place where a nail technician works may be a nail salon or nail shop (also nailshop).
Painting the nails with nail polish (also called nail lacquer and nail
varnish) is a common practice dating back to at least 3000 B.C.
Evolution
In contrast to nails, claws are typically curved
ventrally (downwards in animals) and compressed sideways. They serve a
multitude of functions — including climbing, digging, and fighting —
and have undergone numerous adaptive changes in different animal taxa. Claws are pointed at their ends
and are composed of two layers: a thick, deep layer and a superficial, hardened
layer which serves a protective function. The underlying bone is a virtual
mould of the overlying horny structure and therefore has the same shape as the claw
or nail. Compared to claws, nails are flat, less curved, and do not extend far
beyond the tip of the digits. The ends of the nails usually consist only of the
"superficial", hardened layer and are not pointed like claws.
With only a few exceptions, primates retain plesiomorphic (original, "primitive") hands with five digits, each equipped
with either a nail or a claw. For example, all prosimians (i.e. "primitive"
primates or "proto-primates") have nails on all digits except the
second toe which is equipped with a so called toilet-claw (i.e. important for grooming
activities). The needle-clawed bushbaby (Euoticus) have keeled nails
(the thumb and the first and the second toes have claws) featuring a central
ridge that ends in a needle-like tip. In tree shrews (primate-like rodents) all digits
have claws and, unlike most primates, the digits of their feet are positioned
close together, and therefore the thumb cannot be brought into opposition
(another distinguishing feature of primates).
A study of the fingertip morphology of four small-bodied
New World monkey species, indicated a correlation between increasing small-branch foraging
and
- expanded apical pads,
- developed epidermal ridges (fingerprints),
- broadened distal parts of distal phalanges (fingertip bone), and
- reduced flexor and extensor tubercles.
This suggests that whereas claws are useful on
large-diameter branches, wide fingertips with nails and epidermal ridges were
required for habitual locomotion on small-diameter branches. It also indicates
keel-shaped nails of Callitrichines (a family of New World monkeys) is
a derived postural adaptation rather than retained ancestral condition.
Fingers of the
human left hand.
A finger is a type of digit, an organ of manipulation and sensation found in the hands of humans and otherprimates. Normally humans have five digits, termed phalanges,
on each hand (exceptions arepolydactyly, hypodactyly and digit loss). The first digit is the thumb, followed by index finger, middle finger,ring finger, and little finger or pinky. Some other languages use the same
generic term for all five digits of a hand.
English dictionaries describe finger as meaning either
one of the five digits including the thumb, or one of the four excluding the
thumb (in which case they are numbered from 1 to 4 starting with the index
finger closest to the thumb). Linguistically, it appears that the original
sense was to include the thumb as a finger: the word is derived from *penkwe-ros (also
rendered as *penqrós which was, in the inferred Proto-Indo-European language, a suffixed form of *penkwe (or *penqe),
"five", which has given rise to many Indo-European-family
words (tens of them defined in English dictionaries) that involve or flow from
concepts of fiveness.
Chimpanzees have lower limbs that are specialized for
manipulation, and (arguably) have fingers on their lower limbs as well. The
term 'finger' is not applied to the digits of most other animals, such as canines,felines, or ungulates, none of which can engage in fine manipulation with
their forelimbs as a primate can.
Function
Each finger may flex and extend, abduct and adduct, and so also circumduct.
Flexion is by far the strongest movement. In humans, there are two large
muscles that produce flexion of each finger, and additional muscles that
augment the movement. Each finger may move independently of the others, though
the muscle bulks that move each finger may be partly blended, and the tendons
may be attached to each other by a net of fibrous tissue, preventing completely
free movement. This is particularly noticeable when trying to extend the fourth
digit (third finger) with the others flexed.
Fingers are usually moved under conscious control. In
humans, they are used for grasping, typing, grooming, writing, caressing, and many other activities. They are also used in
signaling, as when wearing a wedding ring, finger counting or when communicating in sign language.
Aside from the genitals, the fingertips possess the highest concentration
of touch receptors and thermoreceptors among all areas of the human skin, making them
extremely sensitive to temperature, pressure, vibration, texture, and moisture.
Thus fingers are commonly used as sensory probes to ascertain properties of objects
encountered in the world, and so they are prone to injury.
Fingers do not contain muscles other than arrector pili muscles. The muscles that move
the finger joints are in the palm and forearm. The long tendons that deliver motion from the
forearm muscles may be observed to move under the skin at the wrist and on the
back of the hand.
Part Of Finger
Each of the fingers has unique cultural and functional
significance. From the thumb on the radial side to the ulnar side of
the hand, the fingers are in this order:
 |
1. Thumb
|
Anatomy
The 5 digits
are attached to the forearm by a joint called the wrist (carpus). The thumb (connected to the trapezium) is located on one of the sides, parallel to the arm.
Illustration
depicting the bones of the human hand
The palm has five bones known as metacarpal bones, one
to each of the 5 digits. Human hands contain fourteen digital bones, also
called phalanges, or phalanx bones: two in the thumb (the thumb has no middle phalanx)
and three in each of the four fingers. These are the distal phalanx, carrying
the nail, the middle phalanx, and the proximal phalanx.
Sesamoid bones are small ossified nodes embedded in the tendons to provide extra
leverage and reduce pressure on the underlying tissue. Many exist around the
palm at the bases of the digits; the exact number varies between different
people.
The articulations are: interphalangeal articulations between phalangeal bones, andmetacarpophalangeal joints connecting the phalanges to the metacarpal
bones.
The pulp of a finger is the fleshy
mass on the palmar aspect of the extremity of the finger.
Muscles
Muscles and
other structures of wrist and palm
Muscles of the fingers can be subdivided into two
groups: the extrinsic and intrinsic muscle groups. The extrinsic muscle groups
are the long flexors and extensors. They are called extrinsic because the
muscle belly is located on the forearm.
The intrinsic muscle groups are the thenar and hypothenar muscles (thenar referring to the thumb,
hypothenar to the small finger), the interossei muscles (between the metacarpal
bones, four dorsally and three volarly) and
the lumbrical muscles. These
muscles arise from the deep flexor(and are
special because they have no bony origin) and insert on the dorsal extensor
hood mechanism. The intrinsic muscles of hand can be remembered using the mnemonic, "A OF A OF A" for, Abductor
pollicis brevis, Opponens pollicis, Flexor pollicis
brevis, Adductor pollicis (thenar muscles) and Opponens
digiti minimi, Flexor digiti minimi brevis, Abductor
digiti minimi (hypothenar muscles).
The fingers have two long flexors, located on the
underside of the forearm. They insert by tendons to the phalanges of the
fingers. The deep flexor attaches to the distal phalanx, and the superficial
flexor attaches to the middle phalanx. The flexors allow for the actual bending
of the fingers. The thumb has one long flexor and a short flexor in the thenar
muscle group. The human thumb also has other muscles in the thenar group (opponens and abductor brevis muscle),
moving the thumb in opposition, making grasping possible.
The extensors are located on the back of the forearm
and are connected in a more complex way than the flexors to the dorsum of the
fingers. The tendons unite with the interosseous and lumbrical muscles to form
the extensorhood mechanism. The primary function of the extensors is to
straighten out the digits. The thumb has two extensors in the forearm; the
tendons of these form the anatomical snuff
box. Also, the
index finger and the little finger have an extra extensor, used for instance
for pointing. The extensors are situated within 6 separate compartments. The
1st compartment contains abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis.
The 2nd compartment contains extensors carpi radialis longus and brevis. The
3rd compartment contains extensor pollicis longus. The extensor digitorum indicis and extensor
digititorum communis are within the 4th compartment. Extensor digiti minimi is
in the fifth, and extensor carpi ulnaris is in the 6th.
Anomalies and Diseases
A rare anatomical variation affects 1 in 500
humans, in which the individual has more than the usual number of digits;
this is known aspolydactyly. A human may also be born without one or more
fingers. Extra fingers can be functional. In one individual with seven fingers
not only used them but claimed that they “gave him some advantages in playing
the piano.”
Phalanges are commonly fractured. A damaged tendon can cause significant loss of
function in fine motor control, such as with a mallet finger.
Finger locking is the act of locking the middle joint
of a finger in place, and bending the very last joint independently from the
others. Many people have the ability to do this in only one hand or even in
both, depending on how the muscles are formed in the hand. Finger locking may
cause pain and sometimes even arthritis.
The fingers are commonly affected by diseases such
as rheumatoid
arthritis and gout. Diabetics often use the fingers to obtain blood samples
for regular blood sugar testing. Raynaud's phenomenon is a neurovascular disorder that affects the
fingers.
Brain representation
Each finger has an orderly somatotopic representation
on the cerebral cortex in the somatosensory
cortex area
3b, part of area 1 and a distributed, overlapping representations in
the supplementary motor area and primary motor area.
The somatosensory cortex representation of the hand is
a dynamic reflection of the fingers on the external hand: in syndactyly people have a clubhand of webbed, shortened
fingers. However, not only are the fingers of their hands fused, but the
cortical maps of their individual fingers also form a club hand. The fingers
can be surgically divided to make a more useful hand. Surgeons did this at the
Institute of Reconstructive Plastic Surgery in New York to a 32-year-old man
with the initials O. G.. They touched O. G.’s fingers before and after surgery
while using MRI brain scans. Before the surgery, the fingers mapped onto his
brain were fused close together; afterward, the maps of his individual fingers
did indeed separate and take the layout corresponding to a normal hand.
Toes
Toes are the digits of the foot of a tetrapod. Animal species such as cats that walk on their toes are described as being digitigrade. Humans, and other animals that walk on the soles of their feet, are described as being plantigrade; unguligrade animals are those that walk onhooves at the tips of their toes.
§
Index toe (long
toe)
§
Middle toe
§
Fourth toe
§
Little toe (Colloquially
known as the pinky toe or the baby toe in
the United States and
theUnited Kingdom)[1].
The human foot consists of numerous bones and soft
tissues which support the weight of theupright human. Specifically,
the toes assist the human while walking, providing
balance, weight-bearing, and thrust during the gait. Toe bones articulate around the metatarsal bones
which make up the central portion of the human foot. The joints between bones
of the toe are known asinterphalangeal joints. Movements are generally instigated by way of tendons
actuated by muscles in the lower leg.
The hallux (large toe) is primarily flexed by
the flexor hallucis longus muscle, located in the deep posterior of the lower leg, via
the flexor hallucis longus tendon. Additional flexion control is provided by the flexor hallucis brevis. It is extended by the abductor hallucis muscle and the adductor hallucis muscle. The remaining toes are primarily controlled by
the flexor digitorum brevis muscleand the extensor digitorum brevis muscle. Finally, the fifth toe (the smallest toe) has a
separate set of control muscles and tendon attachments, the flexor and abductor digiti minimi. Numerous other foot muscles contribute to fine motor control of the foot.
The connective tendons between the minor toes accounts for the inability to
actuate individual toes.
Exceptions include polydactyly (too
many toes), and syndactyly or amputation (too
few toes). The four smallest toes consist of three phalanx bones, while the
largest consists of two phalanx bones and two sesamoid bones. Many
of the flexor tendons are shared, making it impossible to move
individual toes independently; however, some prehensility, or
grasping capability, does exist for most humans.
Forefoot shape, including toe shape, exhibits
significant variation among people; these differences can be measured and have
been statistically correlated with ethnicity. Such
deviations may affect comfort and fit for various shoe types. Research
conducted by Freedman for the U.S. Army indicated that larger feet may still have
smaller arches, toe length, and toe-breadth. Specifically measurable toe and
forefoot metrics for humans include:
§
height
§
breadth and
girth
§
digital pattern
§
heel to toe
length
Each of these metrics has been correlated to
particular ethnic groups, but absolute deviations in dimensions are relatively
small; such deviations may or may not be practically significant from the
ergonomic or comfort standpoint.
Injuries
A sprain or strain to the small interphalangeal joints of the toe is commonly called a stubbed
toe. A sprain or strain where the toe joins to the foot is called turf toe.
A bunion is a
structural deformity of the bones and the joint between the foot and big toe, and may be
painful. Long-term use of improperly sized shoes can cause misalignment of
toes, as well as other orthopedic problems.
VOCABULARY
-
Phalanges : Tulang jari
-
Keratin : Terbentuk
dari kulit yang keras
-
Grooves : lekuk
-
Vessels : Pembuluh
-
Fingertip : Ujung jari
-
Hooked : Bengkok
-
Arched : Bagian telapak kaki yang
melengkung
-
Translucent : Tembus cahaya
-
Embedded : Meletakkan
-
Counterforce : Kekuatan melawan
-
Splinter : Serpihan
-
Outermost finger bones :
-
To regrow completely
-
Perfusion : Perfusi
-
Beau's lines : Mempercantik kuku
-
Thickening : Bahan pengental (kutek)
-
Brittleness : Kerapuhan
-
Splitting : Pemisah
-
Eponychium : Kulit di bawah kuku
-
Receded lunula
-
TENSES
AUXALARY
B.
The Dodo
The dodo (Raphus
cucullatus) was a flightless bird endemic to the Indian Ocean island of Mauritius.
Related to pigeons and doves,
it stood about a meter (3.3 feet) tall, weighing about 20 kilograms
(44 lb), living on fruit, and nesting on the ground. The dodo has been extinct since the mid-to-late 17th century. It is commonly used as the archetype of an extinct species because its
extinction occurred during recorded human history and was directly attributable
to human activity. The phrase "dead as a dodo"
means undoubtedly and unquestionably dead, whilst the phrase "to go the way of the dodo" means to become extinct or
obsolete, to fall out of common usage or practice, or to become a thing of the
past.
a. Morfology
According to artists' renditions, the dodo had greyish plumage, a
23-centimeter (9-inch) bill with a hooked point, very small wings, stout yellow legs, and a tuft of
curly feathers high on its rear end. Dodos were very
large birds, possibly weighing up to 23 kg (50 pounds), althuogh some estimations give a weight of about
10.6-17.5 kg. The sternum was insufficient to support flight;
these ground-bound birds evolved to take advantage of an island ecosystem with no predators.
b. Diet
The tambalacoque,
also known as the "dodo tree", was hypothesized by Stanley Temple to
have been eaten from by dodos, and only by passing through the digestive tract
of the dodo could the seeds germinate; he claimed that the tambalacocque was
now nearly extinct due to the dodo's disappearance. He force-fed seventeen tambalacoque fruits to Wild Turkeys and three germinated. Temple did not
try to germinate any seeds from control fruits not fed to turkeys so the effect
of feeding fruits to turkeys was unclear. Temple also overlooked reports on
tambalacoque seed germination by A. W. Hill in 1941 and H. C. King in 1946, who
found the seeds germinated, albeit very rarely, without abrading.
c. Extinction
The 2005 expedition's finds are
apparently of animals killed by a flash flood;
such mass mortalities would have further jeopardized a species already in
danger of becoming extinct. Although there are scattered reports of mass
killings of dodos for provisioning of ships, archaeological investigations have
hitherto found scant evidence of human predation on these birds. Some bones of
at least two dodos were found in caves at Baie du Cap which were used as
shelters by fugitive slaves and convicts in the 17th century, but due to their
isolation in high, broken terrain, were not easily accessible to dodos
naturally.
d. Cultural significance
The dodo's significance as one of the
best-known extinct animals and its singular appearance has led to its use in
literature and popular culture to symbolize a concept or object that will or
has become out of date, as in the expression "dead as a dodo" or
"gone the way of the dodo”.
Vocabulary :
·
Extinct
= punah
·
Extinction
= kepunahan
·
Plumage
= bulu burung
·
Sternum = tulang dada
·
Insufficient
= cukup
·
Ecosystem
= ekosistem
·
Hypothesized
= dihipotesiskan
·
Wild
Turkeys = kalkun liar
·
flash
flood = banjir bandang
·
mortalities
= kematian
·
jeopardized
= terancam
·
archaeological
= kepurbakalaan
·
hitherto
= sampai sekarang
·
evidence
= bukti
·
predation
= predator
·
shelters
= pasukan perang
·
terrain
= medan
tenses :
·
simple
past tense : The dodo (Raphus
cucullatus) was a flightless bird endemic to the Indian Ocean island of Mauritius.
CHAPTER IV
CLOSING
A.
Conclusion
Based on the discussions that have been outlined in previous
discussion points. We took some conclusions are:
a.
The Dodo: They lived
on a little island called Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, not far from Africa.
The Dodo was gone forever because people began living on the island in the
1600s. They too ate Dodo birds. And the Dodos were easy to find and catch.
b.
Nails, fingers, and
toes: the nails grow all the time. hands and feet are part of the fingers and toes. Each of the fingers has
unique cultural and functional significance. From the thumb on the radial side to the ulnar side of the hand, the fingers are in this order: Thumb, Index finger, Middle finger, Ring finger, and Little finger. The parts of toe is Hallux (big toe), Index toe (long
toe), middle toe, Fourth toe, and Little toe.
B.
Suggestion
a.
The dodo:
We have to
protect animals that are nearly extinct and keep all the species from
extinction.
b.
Nails, finger, and
toes :
-
We have to keep
cleaning the nails, fingers, and toes because the origin of the disease
originated from it all.
-
Every part of the feet
and hands have a very important function in supporting our life therefore we
should care.
DAFTAR
PUSTAKA
---.20--.Belajar Sebagai Konstruksi Pengetahuan.[Online]. [18-11-2010,22.00WIB]
The Dodo. [Online]. [24-11-2010, 06.32 WIB]
by: Aisyah, Indri, Windi and Darin.
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